Hypotoni

Blood pressure (BP) is variable and can only be considered as normal or abnormal against the circumstances of the individual in question, with regard to age/sex, conditions in which it was measured, and other relevant factors.

What is hypotension?

Hypotension is therefore a BP that is much lower than usual and which may be causing symptoms such as dizziness or light-headedness. It is often defined as systolic BP less than 90 mm Hg or diastolic BP less than 60 mm Hg. A systolic BP below 100 mm Hg may be more appropriate if the patient normally has hypertension.

Orthostatic (postural) hypotension^{1 2 3}

Orthostatic hypotension is defined as a sustained reduction in systolic blood pressure of at least 20 mm Hg or a reduction in diastolic blood pressure of at least 10 mm Hg, usually within the first three minutes of standing or head-up tilt on a tilt table.

Orthostatic hypotension is very common, especially in the elderly, due to a number of underlying problems with BP control. The baroreflex mechanisms which control heart rate and vascular resistance decline with age (particularly in patients with hypertension) who thus display lability in BP. They are particularly prone to postural hypotension and to the effects of drugs.

• The prevalence is age-dependent, ranging from 5% in patients under 50 years of age to 30% in those over 70 years of age.⁴

• Orthostatic hypotension is a common feature of Parkinsons sjukdom.⁵

• Orthostatic hypotension increases the risk of falls, cardiovascular disease, and all-cause mortality.¹

• The majority of patients with orthostatic hypotension are asymptomatic or have a few nonspecific symptoms.⁶

• Common symptoms include dizziness, light-headedness, blurred vision, weakness, fatigue, nausea, palpitations and headache. Less common symptoms include syncope, dyspnoea, chest pain and neck and shoulder pain.⁷

• One factor influencing the high prevalence of orthostatic hypotension in the elderly is the frequency of use of antihypertensive medications. Vasodilators (eg, alpha-adrenergic blockers, calcium-channel blockers, nitrates), opioids, tricyclic antidepressants, and alcohol are frequently associated with orthostatic hypotension.

• It can also be associated with prolonged bed rest.

Multipel systematrofi (Shy-Drager syndrome) and pure autonomic failure (Bradbury-Eggleston syndrome) are primary neuropathies that cause severe orthostatic hypotension as a result of widespread damage to the autonomic system:

• The condition is often worse in the morning and after food or exercise.

• It is associated with other signs of parasympathetic failure - eg, dry mouth and eyes, impotence, loss of sweating and atonic bowel, bladder or stomach.

• In mild-to-moderate cases the patient presents with some or all of the following: feeling faint or dizzy, light-headedness, confusion and blurred vision.

• In more severe cases there may be a history of syncope or fits.

Conditions producing orthostatic hypotension

Acute hypotension

See also the separate articles on Sepsis, Cardiogenic Shock, Resuscitation in Hypovolaemic Shock, Anaphylaxis and its Treatment, och Synkope.

Although commonly associated, hypotension is not synonymous with shock. Normal BP can be present during shock in people with hypertension, and normal tissue perfusion can exist among hypotensive individuals. The cause of hypotension and shock among traumatic patients is often hypovolaemia due to blood loss.⁸

In the acute form, hypotension can be a serious clinical feature that may cause renal, cerebral and myocardial hypoxic damage. It is often associated with the different forms of shock including:

• Sepsis.

• Cardiogenic - myocardial infarction, hjärtsvikt, aortic valve problem, arrhythmia, cardiac tamponade, pulmonary embolism.

• Hypovolaemia - blood loss (haemorrhage), plasma loss (burns), dehydration (diarrhoea and/or vomiting), pooling of unavailable fluids (eg, pancreatitis).

• Anaphylactic - type I IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reaction.

• Neurogenic - caused by trauma to the brain or spine or as an adverse effect of an epidural anaesthetic. Also, it can result from pain or fear via reflex vagal stimulation.

Other causes include:

• Vasodilatation - from antihypertensive drugs, heat exposure.

• Drugs such as narcotic analgesics, alcohol, some antidepressants and anxiolytics.

• Autonomic nervous system failure (systolic BP down ≥20 mm Hg, diastolic BP down ≥10 mm Hg inside three minutes of standing without increase in pulse rate).

• Micturition syncope.

• Addisons sjukdom (autoimmune adrenal failure): systolic BP is rarely >110 mm Hg, symptoms of postural hypotension are common and reactive hypoglycaemia after carbohydrates may masquerade as postprandial hypotension. Secondary adrenal insufficiency also causes hypotension.

Vasovagal faints⁹

• These are often associated with prolonged standing with resultant pooling of venous blood with reduced venous return to the heart. There may be a brief period of sweating and pre-syncope symptoms before collapse. Reduced cerebral perfusion causes loss of consciousness. Consciousness returns relatively quickly.

• When due to pain, emotional stress or sight of blood, there is central reflex activation.

• They affect all age groups, varying from infrequent attacks with an obvious trigger to frequent episodes with no apparent cause.

• There have been multiple studies of permanent pacemakers for vasovagal faints, with wildly varying results. A pacemaker may be required if severe bradycardia or asystole is shown during a faint using an implantable loop recorder.¹⁰

Postprandial hypotension¹¹

• 40-80% of people with autonomic dysfunction will have postprandial hypotension.

• This is often defined as a decline in systolic arterial pressure of 20 mm Hg or a systolic arterial pressure less than 90 mm Hg (with a pre-meal systolic arterial pressure greater than 100 mm Hg), within two hours of consuming a meal.

• Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring can aid in the diagnosis of postprandial hypotension.

• One study found that meals with higher glucose load were found to lower blood pressure more significantly than meals with higher fat content. Higher protein content was associated with the least amount of BP change, when compared to a high glucose or lipid meal.

• The initial treatment approach to postprandial hypotension is non-pharmacological. Patients with postprandial hypotension should be advised to take in smaller more frequent meals. If this is not adequate then patients should be instructed to decrease the carbohydrate load in their diet.

• Although non-pharmacological approaches are usually adequate, medications may sometimes be required.

• One study found that acarbose, a glucosidase inhibitor which decreases glucose absorption in the small intestine, significantly reduced the fall in blood pressure after eating in patients with postprandial hypotension.

• An alternative is subcutaneous octreotide.

Hypotension investigations¹

First-line investigation should include:

• FBC.

• U&E.

• Fasting glucose.

• Pregnancy test (if the patient is unsure).

• ECG.

• Echocardiogram - if suggested by a history suggestive of a cardiac problem.

• Tilt-table testing for orthostatic hypotension:
  

  • Passive tilt-testing to an angle between 60° and 80° for three minutes is recommended for the diagnosis of orthostatic hypotension.

  • The test is considered positive if systolic BP falls below 20 mm Hg and diastolic BP below 10 mm Hg of baseline.

  • If symptoms occur, the patient should be tilted back to the supine position immediately.

Hypotension treatment and management^{2 3 4 13}

Postural hypotension

The key to managing tpostural hypotension is individually tailored therapy. The goal of treatment is to improve the patient's functional capacity and quality of life, preventing injury, rather than to achieve a target BP. Cardiology referral is indicated if heart disease or abnormal ECG is present or suspected.

Many patients will improve with simple measures and these should be tried first:

• The patient (and carers) should be educated about the various factors that affect BP and about the special aspects that have to be avoided - eg, foods, habits, positions and drugs.

• Avoid triggers - eg, high-temperature environments.

• Review any medication being taken.

• Advise the elderly on standing slowly, dorsiflexing the feet first and even crossing the legs whilst upright.

• Raising the head of the bed, which helps prevent diuresis and supine hypertension caused by fluid shifts.

• Physical counterpressure with compression hosiery, or whole-body inflatable suits may be required.

• A morning dose of caffeine as coffee or in tablet form can be effective.

More severely affected patients may require further interventions. Further interventions must be tailored to the individual needs of the patient and the benefits and risks carefully considered and discussed. Some of the further interventions used for hypotension have the potential to cause significant harm and so should be used with caution.

Initial intervention is to maintain high fluid and salt intake. Ideally, daily fluid intake should be 2-2.5 litres of water. Bolus water drinking has a fast pressor effect (the blood pressure increases within 5 to 10 minutes), which can be useful as a rescue measure, although the effect is relatively short (30 to 45 minutes). Salt intake should be increased by adding one teaspoon of salt to a healthy diet. Sugary drinks should be avoided, as high glycaemic index carbohydrates can induce or worsen hypotension.

If hypotension symptoms still persist, consider medication. Medications used for orthostatic hypotension include midodrine, fludrocortisone, droxidopa, octreotide and pyridostigmine: ¹⁴

Droxidopa is a noradrenaline prodrug which significantly improves orthostatic hypotension and quality of life, and significantly reduces falls.

Many patients with orthostatic hypotension also suffer from supine hypertension, which causes further difficulty because pharmacological treatments to improve standing blood pressure may worsen supine hypertension.¹⁵

Acute hypotension

See the separate Resuscitation in Hypovolaemic Shock artikel.

• Check airways.

• Give O₂ by mask.

• Place the patient head down.

• Administer intravenous fluids (0.9% saline) having excluded pulmonary oedema.

• Treat the underlying cause (see the list of possible causes above).

Vasovagal faints⁹

• Symptoms often resolve spontaneously. Non-pharmacological therapy is often effective in preventing vasovagal syncope.

• Education, hydration and physical counter-measures (eg, leg crossing and clenching buttocks as soon as possible after the start of the vasovagal prodrome) are often effective.

• Any medications that could potentially worsen symptoms should be removed if possible. Common agents that could worsen symptoms include diuretics (decreased preload) and vasodilators (decreased afterload).

• Drugs may be needed in only a small minority of patients. Midodrine and fludrocortisone are the main drugs used.